AASP Newsletter - May 2019

Thomas Gretton	Katherine Hirsch	Dane Anderson	Carra Johnson

Regardless of skill type or level of expertise, individuals involved in sport are exposed to various recurring stressors that can impact performance outcomes. Athletes, coaches, and others involved in sport can experience any combination of competitive, organizational, physical, and psychological stressors, which are ever-present in competitive sport environments (Mellalieu, Neil, Hanton & Fletcher, 2009). Without sufficient strategies and resources to cope with the aforementioned stressors, individuals can experience a range of psychological consequences, including peripheral narrowing (Vine, Moore, & Wilson, 2016), over-arousal, and overthinking (Elmagd, 2016).

One strategy that has been heavily researched and well-supported is the use of pre-performance routines (PPR), an intervention strategy consisting of “cognitive and behavioral elements that intentionally help regulate arousal and concentration” (Foster, Weigand, & Baines, 2006, p.167). In sport psychology, PPR are considered important tools for allowing athletes to move from conscious processing to automated skill execution, a central trait of optimal performance (Toner, Montero, & Moran, 2015). Despite existing knowledge of the benefits of PPR, it appears that the research and application of these strategies has been focused almost exclusively on the athlete population. It is only over the last five to ten years that the use of PPR among coaches has been examined. Moreover, research on the use of PPR by sport officials is virtually nonexistent despite the high demands and many stressors that they experience as part of their profession.   

Researchers have sought to investigate the underlying mechanisms through which PPR facilitate lowered levels of stress (see Cotterill, 2010 and Hagan & Schack, 2019 for reviews) and have examined the relationship between PPR and stress by measuring performance outcomes (i.e., clutch performances reflect overcoming stress; Hill & Hemmings, 2015), self-reported psychological effects (Miles, Neil, & Barker, 2016), and physiological reactions (e.g., heart rate and cortical activity; Radlo, Steinberg, Singer, Barba, & Melnikov, 2002; Gröpel & Beckmann, 2017). Using these methods, many psychological and physiological responses have been identified that may explain how PPR help to reduce the impact of stressors. These include positive affect (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996), improved task focus or concentration (Cotterill, 2010; Mesagno, Marchant, & Morris, 2008), cortical relaxation (Gropel & Beckmann, 2017), increased goal expectancy and automaticity (Hill & Hemmings, 2015), and improvements in overcoming negative thoughts (Boutcher, 1992).

Effective pre-performance routines can vary across sport types and between athletes. Hagan and Schack (2019) recommend taking into account an individual’s stressors, tendencies, and values when developing PPR. Moreover, utilizing a stress and emotion diary can be useful for gaining insight into what factors to target in the PPR (Miles et al., 2016). Although the aforementioned recommendations for how to develop PPR pertain to athletes, it is likely that these insights, can inform the use of PPR with coaches and officials as well.  

The way in which coaches and officials approach the competitive environment and manage their roles in competition impacts one’s competitive experiences. Moreover, a coach’s ability to self-manage can be instrumental to an athlete’s development, performance success, intrinsic enjoyment, and adherence to sport over time (Barnicle & Burton, 2016). Coaches and officials alike are nonetheless susceptible to a multitude of sport-specific and non-sport-specific stressors that can influence their ability to provide support to athletes and manage their roles effectively. Although some of these stressors may be more exaggerated at the elite level of sport (e.g., pressure to perform), it is reasonable to infer that these stressors exist to some degree across all levels of sport performance. 

While coaches may strive to promote a supportive environment for their athletes during competition, stressors such as conflict, pressure, and isolation, as well as management of the competitive environment, coaching responsibilities, and athlete concerns, can inhibit coaches’ ability to do this effectively (Olusoga et al., 2009). Early work examining the role of coaches in competition contexts addressed their involvement pre- and post- competition, underlining their impact in providing critical, contextual information and instilling a sense of calm that transcends to their players (Bloom, Durand-Bush, & Salmela, 1997).

More recently, however, research has explored the role of the coach at the intermittent level, particularly during half-time periods or between periods of play (e.g., in timeouts or between high jump attempts; Allain, Bloom, & Gilbert, 2018). Similar to findings on the coach’s role prior to competition, work focusing on intermission periods has underlined the importance of coaches making acute, tactical adjustments during these times, in response to unforeseen circumstances (Cotterill, Collins, & Sanders, 2014; Fletcher & Scott, 2010).  Such findings underline the importance of coaches being in control of their emotions while also consciously processing contextually relevant information. The way in which this information is disseminated is vital; Fletcher and Scott (2010) discussed how the most effective coaches are able to adopt either an emotion-focused or problem-focused approach, depending on the presented circumstances. For example, under conditions of high pressure and stress (e.g., at an Olympic event), the most effective coaches were those able to focus on the process of coaching rather than the performance outcome, and who were able to also draw upon applicable contingency plans. With this in mind, it seems reasonable to suggest that coaches would benefit from utilizing PPR themselves, particularly routines that address both preparatory/preventative and reactionary approaches to critical events, unforeseen circumstances, and various sport-specific stressors. 

However, coaches are not the only other individuals, peripheral to the athletes, who are required to perform and self-manage during competition. Officials constitute another group of individuals, essential to competition, who experience significant sport- and competition-specific stressors – and thus may benefit from using PPR. The fact that officials experience stress during sport competitions is well documented. Baldwin (2013) acknowledged that factors such as coaches, athletes, spectators, and weather conditions can interfere with officials’ ability to perform their duties to the best of their abilities. His work also revealed that stress levels tend to increase as the competition unfolds and fatigue sets in, making officiating increasingly difficult throughout the competition.

Moreover, Lovell and Mason (2001) highlighted the significance of pregame stress on officials, finding that they tend to view such stress as an obstacle to implementing mental skills such as sustained focus, improved concentration, and objectivity. Samuel, Englert, Zhang, and Basevitch (2018) characterized self-control as a necessary quality in accurate and effective officiating. They noted that sport psychology practitioners could help officials implement pre-performance routines to sustain and support self-control. Specifically, Baldwin (2013) noted that listening to music, reading books, and engaging in pregame physical warm-ups helped officials to reduce their competition anxiety. It stands to reason that officials can immensely benefit from PPR designed to sharpen mental skills and enhance psychological qualities needed for optimal performance. Certified Mental Performance Consultants® (CMPCs) would be wise to tap into resources and techniques currently used for PPR with athletes and apply them with sport officials.

Given that stress is not only commonplace in sport, but an essential component of competition, the value of implementing PPR with all individuals contributing to the competitive environment—including athletes, coaches, and officials—cannot be underestimated. It is pertinent to further examine the use of PPR with coaches and officials; in particular, the performance factors that most influence their use of these routines, and the impact of using PPR consistently throughout competition. Not only could the use of these routines help to enhance the performance experiences and outcomes for everyone involved, developing these performance programs could also enable CMPCs to address the many factors that contribute to competition stress. The use of PPR could help CMPCs to expand their reach of teaching fundamental psychological skills, thus promoting a more engaged, exhilarating, and enjoyable experience for all sport participants.

References

Allain, J., Bloom, G. A., & Gilbert, W. D. (2018). Successful high-performance ice hockey coaches’ intermission routines and situational factors that guide implementation. The Sport Psychologist, 32(3), 210-219.

Baldwin, C. (2013): The ref must be blind: Identifying pre and postgame stresses of Australian sports referees and match officials. Sociology Study, 3(1), 13-22.

Barnicle, S. P., & Burton, D. (2016). Enhancing collegiate women’s soccer psychosocial and performance outcomes by promoting intrinsic sources of sport enjoyment. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 15(4), 678-687.

Bloom, G. A., Durand-Bush, N., & Salmela, J. H. (1997). Pre and postcompetition routines of expert coaches of team sports. The Sport Psychologist, 11(2), 127-141.

Boutcher, S. H. (1992). Attention and athletic performance: An integrated approach. In T. S. Horn (Ed.), Advances in sport psychology (pp. 251-266). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Cotterill, S. (2010). Pre-performance routines in sport: Current understanding and future directions. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 3(2), 132-153.

Cotterill, S. T., Collins, D., & Sanders, R. (2014). Developing effective pre-performance routines for golf performance: Implications for the coach. Athletic Insight, 6(1), 53-64.

Elmagd, M. A. (2016). General psychological factors affecting physical performance and sports. International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health, 3(5), 255-264.

Fletcher, D., & Scott, M. (2010). Psychological stress in sports coaches: A review of concepts, research, and practice. Journal of Sports Sciences, 28(2), 127-137.

Foster, D. J., Weigand, D. A., & Baines, D. (2006). The effect of removing superstitious behavior and introducing a pre-performance routine on basketball free-throw performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 18(2), 167-171.

Gröpel, P., & Beckmann, J. (2017). A pre-performance routine to optimize competition performance in artistic gymnastics. The Sport Psychologist, 31(2), 199-207.

Hagan, J. E., & Schack, T. (2019). Integrating pre-game rituals and pre-performance routines in a culture-specific context: Implications for sport psychology consultancy. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17(1), 18-31.

Hardy, L., Jones, G., & Gould, D. (1996). Understanding psychological preparation for sport: Theory and practise of elite performers. Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons.

Hill, D. M., & Hemmings, B. (2015). A phenomenological exploration of coping responses associated with choking in sport. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 7(4), 521-538.

Mason, C., & Lovell, G. (2000). Attitudes, expectations and demands of English Premier League Soccer Association referees. Journal of Football Studies, 3(1), 88-102.

Mellalieu, S. D., Neil, R., Hanton, S., & Fletcher, D. (2009). Competition stress in sport performers: Stressors experienced in the competition environment. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(7), 729-744.

Mesagno, C., Marchant, D., & Morris, T. (2008). A pre-performance routine to alleviate choking in “choking-susceptible” athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 22(4), 439-457.

Miles, A. J., Neil, R., & Barker, J. (2016). Preparing to take the field: A temporal exploration of stress, emotion, and coping in elite cricket. The Sport Psychologist, 30(2), 101-112.

Olusoga, P., Butt, J., Hays, K., & Maynard, I. (2009). Stress in elite sports coaching: Identifying stressors. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21(4), 442-459.

Radlo, S. J., Steinberg, G. M., Singer, R. N., Barba, D. A., & Melnikov, A. (2002). The influence of an attentional focus strategy on alpha brain wave activity, heart rate, and dart throwing performance. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 33, 205-217.

Samuel, R. D., Englert, C., Zhang, Q., & Basevitch, I. (2018). Hi ref, are you in control? Self-control, ego-depletion, and performance in soccer referees. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 38(1), 167-175.

Vine, S. J., Moore, L. J., & Wilson, M. R. (2016). An integrative framework of stress, attention, and visuomotor performance. Frontiers in Psychology, 7(1), 1-10.