AASP Newsletter - May 2018

Katherine Hirsch, BSc, University of Windsor
Jonathan Stern, BA, Lake Forest College

In recent years, general interest in and research on mindfulness and sport performance has grown, and it is now somewhat of a ‘hot topic’ in sport psychology. At the heart of mindfulness is the act of purposefully paying attention to the present moment, and doing so non-judgmentally (Kabat-Zinn, 1994). More specifically, it involves observing, describing, acting with awareness, as well as non-judgment and non-reactivity to the inner experience (Baer, Smith, Hopkins, Krietemeyer, & Toney, 2006). As mindfulness practice grows in popularity with athletes and performers (Thienot, Jackson, Dimmock, Grove, Bernier, & Fournier, 2014), the practice is being largely separated from its Buddhist roots and reworked by researchers, practitioners, and performers into non-religious techniques, specific to sport psychology and mental skills training (Baltzell, McCarthy, & Greenbaum, 2014). These sport-specific strategies are used to address a wide variety of performance challenges (e.g., distraction, worry, negative affect, endurance pain) as well as to aid in the development of particular skills (e.g., cognitive flexibility, enhanced concentration, self-control). In this brief article, we explore recent research regarding the impact of mindfulness on sport-related anxiety and self-esteem, both of which can have paramount impact on optimal sport performance (Woodman & Hardy, 2003).

Mindfulness & Sport-Related Anxiety

Mindfulness can be useful in helping athletes to better cope with sport-related anxiety, which can be characterized by experiences of both cognitive (e.g., worry, concentration disruption) and somatic anxiety (e.g., shaking, racing heart, heaving breathing) before, during, or after performance (Robinson & Freeston, 2015; Smith, Smoll, Cumming, & Grossbard, 2016). Studies have shown promising findings related to mindfulness and management of sport-related anxiety. For instance, researchers have identified that walking meditation interventions can effectively reduce sport anxiety for distance runners; these interventions utilize mindfulness techniques to overcome distractibility, poor running form, fatigue, and endurance pain (De Petrillo, Kaufman, Glass, & Arnkoff, 2009). Interventions with archers and golfers have also been successful in reducing sport anxiety, using techniques such as body scans, mindful breathing, sitting meditations, and mindful yoga (Thompson, Kaufman, De Petrillo, Glass, & Arnkoff, 2011). Mindfulness helps athletes in these instances, to be aware of suboptimal or unhelpful mental and physical cues, open up to their experiences, and act with non-judgmental awareness in the face of challenge and adversity.

Notably, research has also pointed to the impact of flow on the relationship between mindfulness and reduced sport anxiety. Flow is defined as enhanced physical and psychological functioning resulting from a sense of freedom, which is due to immersion in the present moment and absence of negative thoughts (Csikszentmihalyi, 1978; Jackson, 2000). Kee and Wang (2008) reported that high levels of mindfulness were associated with a higher frequency of flow dimensions. Likewise, studies have found that high levels of sport-related anxiety correlate with lower levels of flow (Jackson, Kimiecik, Ford, & Marsh, 1998; Jackson & Wrigley, 2004). Therefore, it could be discerned that flow may act as a mediator in the relationship between mindfulness and sport anxiety.

Mindfulness & Improved Self-Esteem

Mindfulness practice, used either as a stand-alone or complementary intervention, can go a long way in helping people in a multitude of (performance) scenarios to overcome stress, anxiety, and depression (Donald, Atkins, Parker, Christie, & Ryan, 2016; Gouda, Luong, Schmidt, & Bauer, 2016; Parker, Nelson, Epel, & Siegel, 2015). This has been attributed to associations between mindfulness and increased ability to cope with the tasks of everyday life, including greater tolerance for unpleasant states of mind (Remmers, Topolinski, & Koole, 2016; Solhaug et al., 2016). Additionally, mindfulness practice has been shown to boost favorable qualities that enhance human well-being and performance such as self-esteem (Bajaj, Gupta, & Pande, 2016; Gouda et. al, 2016; Tan Lo, Ge, & Chu, 2016).

Importantly, alongside studies on mindfulness and sport-related anxiety, the connection between mindfulness, self-esteem, and optimal performance has also been identified in the sport domain. Athletes consistently face difficult competitive challenges, and when they fall short of expectations often experience doubts and negative thoughts about their abilities (Richard et al., 2016; Röthlin et al., 2016). These negative personal experiences can become intensified through subsequent interactions with parents, peers, and coaches. Athletes can struggle to cope with negative thoughts brought on by both internal and external expectations. Many perceive the mere presence of negative thoughts and feelings related to performance as evidence of personal inadequacy (Denny & Steiner, 2009). Improving self-esteem and resilience through mindfulness interventions does not mean that the athlete will never face challenges or have aversive experiences. But rather, mindful practice will help athletes to acknowledge and relate to negative experiences with less judgment, and move through them more resourcefully (Bajaj et al., 2016; Denny et al., 2009; Richard et al., 2016).

A study of 46 youth athletes in South Korea demonstrated significantly increased self-esteem, resilience, and happiness after an eight-week mindfulness yoga program administered in addition to sport-specific activity (Yook, Kang, & Park, 2017). Mindfulness interventions have also been found to help female athletes improvise during challenging performances by facilitating an increase in their self-esteem and self-compassion (Mosewich, Crocker, Kowalski, & DeLongis, 2013; Richard, Halliwell, & Tenenbaum, 2017). Additionally, mindfulness has been combined with more traditional techniques such as visualization, in an effort to help athletes cope with competition anxiety; this combination was successful in helping to athletes to increase their self-esteem (Röthlin, Birrer, Horvath, & Holtforth, 2016).

It seems that cultivating present-moment awareness allows athletes to embrace and manage challenges in and out of competition, particularly challenges related to negative thinking, self-esteem, and sport anxiety. For an athlete, these factors can play a major role in having a positive or negative experience of sport performance (Baird, 2018; Galante & Ward, 2014; O'Rourke, Smith, Smoll, & Cumming, 2014). Thus, it appears that enhancing the fundamental elements of the human psyche, such as non-judgmental awareness, may be critical to managing and mastering the mental, physical, and emotional demands of competing in sport. As researchers and practitioners continue to assess and apply the mechanisms of mindfulness, we will be able to better understand how athletes’ experiences of pressure, anxiety, worry, and self-doubt may be more optimally managed in sport performance settings.

References

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Woodman, T., & Hardy, L. (2003). The relative impact of cognitive anxiety and self-confidence upon sport performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of sports sciences, 21(6), 443-457.